1. Questions / Prompts

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-> What is a common way to identify a problem statement?

• In short, a common method of articulating a problem statement is to identify a gap or void in the body of knowledge and describe how the results will bridge that gap or fill that void.

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-> What are the characteristics of a problem statement?

• Because the research problem does not exist in a vacuum, the problem statement must describe how the proposed research will bridge the gap created by the discrepancy between what is known and what needs to be known to improve education.

• It is better understood by terms such as cyclical, iterative, or recursive, meaning that once research efforts make new information ( research data ) available, we rethink previous findings ( Did those findings mean something else? ), design new studies ( cycle through the research steps once again ), and repeat our rigorous procedures. (pg 5)

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-> What is a conceptual model and its characteristics?

• Because the conceptual model also reveals how ideas are interconnected, the model suggests fruitful avenues for research, including constructs or variables to investigate.
• Conceptual framework is a model that connects the important elements of the problem being investigated and embeds it in a larger context.
• Embedding research in a conceptual framework also connects it to knowledge in a broader sense—including knowledge from related disciplines (e.g., psychology, sociology).

pg. 9

-> What is a research hypothesis and its characteristics?

• Research hypothesis is A predicted outcome based on theory or understanding, often stated as If A, then B.
• Although the research question may use abstract constructs (e.g., “Is creativity related to anxiety?”), the research hypothesis is specific: “Middle school students scoring higher on the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking will have lower scores on the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. ”
• This form (If A, then B) is helpful for distinguishing cause from effect, but it often produces awkward syntax.

pg. 11

-> What is deductive reasoning and how is it different from inductive reasoning when crafting a research hypothesis?

• Deductive reasoning—that is, reasoning from general to specific (general theories produce specific hypotheses)—is common in quantitative studies.

• Inductive reasoning, where specific ideas or experiences lead to general conclusions in the form of a theory, is common in qualitative studies.

• The point is that some research hypotheses are theory based; others are theory producing.

• [Hypothesis in Quantitative Research] It often appears as an If A, then B statement and is typically imposed on the research design by a theory. (pg 12)

• [in Qualitative Research] A research hypothesis in qualitative research is permitted to “emerge” or “evolve” during data collection.

• [in ActionResearch] An action research hypothesis is often born from a question aimed at solving a problem.

• Keen, reliable observations over time are also sources for research hypotheses.(pg 14) Methods of reasoning (and creativity) through which research hypotheses are formed.

• This knowledge forms the basis of a literature review, and it is hard to imagine a thorough review of the literature that does not culminate in a meaningful research hypothesis (pg 14)

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-> Is the question researchabale?

• Researchable: Refers to a research question (or hypothesis) that can be answered (or tested) directly by the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
• [example] For example, the question “Should moral or character education be taught in school along with reading, writing, and arithmetic?” is a very reasonable and important thing to ask.
• Questions concerned with what “should” be done are outside the realm of scientific research;

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-> What are some IRB (institutional review board) requirements for a research proposal?

• Approval from an IRB starts with a request for review. The University of Arkansas at Little Rock, for example, requires that authors of research proposals (see Chapter 15) provide descriptions of the following:
  • Purpose of the research
  • Method of participant recruitment
  • Tasks required of participants
  • Type of data collected
  • Procedures to ensure anonymity or confidentiality

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-> How are assent forms (for impaired or minors under 18) different from (parental) consent forms?

• Assent forms look similar to consent forms, except they contain language easy to understand, including references to no one “getting mad,” not getting a “bad grade” because of not wanting to be involved in the research, and being able to choose to “stop doing this. ”

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-> What are some examples of a meaningful and impactful research on education?

• The 1960s witnessed another research question and answer that can only be described as a “blockbuster. ” The question posed by James Coleman and his associates (1966) can be paraphrased as “What factors best explain the variation in academic achievement among schoolchildren?” The answer, oversimplified, was “socioeconomic status. ” This answer had great influence because it shifted attention away from preconceived ideas not supported by research data (e.g., that achievement was a function of school expenditures).

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-> What is "replication and extension" in research design?

• Replication and extension: A model of research favoring the repetition of an earlier study with an additional feature that enhances its generalization.

• Most educational research, in fact, appears to follow a replication and extension model, meaning that the research is conducted to test the limits of and extend work that has already been done.

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-> What is a review of literature?

• Review of literature: A summary of past and current research and thinking on a specific researchable topic.
• a term referring to a description of previous research on a given topic (what other researchers have done) and the study's conceptual basis (relevant theories and constructs). The theoretical underpinning or conceptual framework of a study provides a context for the findings and helps organize the important empirical information known about a particular phenomenon.

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-> What are some samples of established and respected journals in Education?

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-> What is a meta-analysis?

• Meta-analysis is a statistical summary of a body of empirical studies, all of which have been conducted to answer one research question or test one research hypothesis.

-> How do meta analysts utilize research studies to create a statistical framework for a single question?

• [example] For example, one of the earliest meta-analyses was done in psychology by researchers trying to answer the question “Does psychotherapy work?” Each study conducted earlier by researchers tr ying to answer this question thus became a data point in the meta-analysis. Of course, each of the hundred or more individual studies was not a perfect replication of any other; researchers may have studied different outcomes, types of therapy, lengths of therapy, types of patients, and the like (in the same mode as replication and extension described earlier). Nevertheless, all of the studies searched for an answer to the same basic question

-> What is the purpose of conducting a meta analysis?

• Meta-analysis, when applied to a large collection of studies, is an overall test in the sense that it attempts to report the “big picture. ” Meta-analysis also is able to uncover relationships across studies that would not be apparent to a single researcher testing one relationship.

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-> What is Howard Gardner's 1993 "Frames of Mind" theory of intelligence and how have they impacted research since?

• One immensely popular theory of intelligence is described by Howard Gardner ( 1993 ) in Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. This original theory of “ multiple intelligences " is currently the basis of many attempts at curricular reform and posits seven ( you guessed it ) intelligences: musical, spatial, bodily / kinesthetic, linguistic, logical / mathematical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

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-> How might rubrics be used in research to gather data?

• Rubrics can be used to answer research questions such as “To what extent have reports of educational research improved over the past 50 years?” To this end, a researcher might sample 10 reports in representative journals from every other year over the past 50 years and observe trends in quality over time.

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-> What is a Likert scale and how are they used for data collection?

• Likert scales use an agreedisagree continuum, often with five scale points (agree strongly, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) and sometimes with seven scale points. Frequently a series of related statements (perhaps five to 10) form a subscale that is scored by summing total points (1 to 5 for each item, assuming a five-point agree-disagree scale). Items are often written to minimize response biases, such as a tendency to use only lower or upper portions of a scale (or its midpoints).

-> What is the difference between a rating scale and a Likert scale?

• An alternative to the familiar Likert scale is a rating scale, in which a continuum of choice is provided, but it is not an agree-disagree continuum.