1. Questions / Prompts

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What is a construct?
-> Construct: A label for an abstract trait or ability (such as creativity or intelligence) that is only presumed to exist, since it cannot be measured directly (as weight or height can).

-> An abstract dimension that interests educational researchers is called a construct because it is a constructed or invented label—a shorthand way of describing many interrelated behaviors, all of which are postulated to represent the same trait or ability.

What is the operational definition of a construct?
-> Although we cannot see a construct, we can test the theory (explanation) behind a construct by directly studying the presumed indicators of the construct. These indicators (i.e., behavioral or overt manifestations) are referred to as the operational definition of the construct.

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What is an example of a construct and its indicators?
-> Another example of a construct is “anxiety,” which is only presumed to exist because we can observe and measure its supposed indicators, such as heart rate.

How are operational definitions associated with specific constructs?
-> You can think of other operational definitions that might be laughable, but they are still operational definitions because they specify how the construct will be known to exist.

How do operational definitions define or are related to constructs? ex: heartbeats to anxiety
-> In any case, these abstract constructs must be measurable in some form or another. Researchers can't perform their job by simply talking about constructs; they must observe and measure them. That task requires making important decisions about how to operationally define the construct in measurable terms, terms that hopefully reflect the complex construct.

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What are some limitations of a construct? or on the operational definition of a construct?
-> An operational definition is a convenience. Be on guard for operational definitions that may not match the essence of a construct

-> Here is the troubling trade-off: Constructs often (but not always) lose some meaning when they are “operationalized”—that is, when numbers are put next to names.

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What are some ways in which operational indicators might mislead researchers into setting up false parameters for a construct?
-> For example, a researcher might test the hypothesis “The quality of the home environment before school age is linked to intelligence 10 years later. ” The researcher decides to use high school rank (based on GPA) and SAT scores as measures of intelligence, but these measures may be more appropriately indicators of motivation, not intelligence. And then there is the problem of operationally defining the “quality of the home environment. ”

What might be some side effects of inappropriately applied operational definitions?
-> When operational definitions do not accurately reflect the construct being investigated, the research results are, at best, open to competing interpretations.

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What are learner variables?
-> A variable, then, refers to any dimension that has two or more changing values.

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What are independent variables and how do researchers employ them in studies?
-> dependent variables are under the command of the researcher and usually reflect a treatment or intervention of some type. They are “free” to vary (hence independent) in the sense that the researcher can determine the conditions, or categories, that define the variable.

-> (Words such as treatment, implementation, and intervention are often used to describe an independent variable.)

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What is a true independent variable?
-> True independent variable: An independent variable that permits random assignment of subjects to groups that define categories of the independent variable (e.g., treatment and control).

How does a true independent variable affect the rigor of a study design?
-> The true independent variable (a) is manipulated by the researcher, meaning that the variable and its categories are created by the researcher, and (b) involves the random assignment of research participants to any one of the categories.

What aspects of a true independent variable ensure rigor in research?
-> This is a true independent variable because (a) I believe it will cause differences in the rate of spelling acquisition, (b) I created it by determining which conditions would exist, and (c) I am free to assign students randomly to the three different conditions.

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What does it mean when we "manipulate" an independent variable?
-> The interrelated notions of presumed cause and created conditions are referred to as manipulation of an independent variable.

How are quasi-independent variables different from true independent variables?
-> Quasi-independent variables are believed to be the cause of some effect, and their created conditions qualify as a manipulation, but restrictions are in place that prohibit the random assignment of subjects to groups.

What impact does the distinction between a true and quasi independent variable have on the findings of a study?
-> The simple technique of random assignment will determine in large part how confident you can be that, for example, the computer was the cause of observed differences in spelling.

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How might a Repeated Measures independent variable differ in execution from a true independent variable?
-> Repeated measures independent variables also require fewer subjects for the simple reason that each provides repeated (multiple) measures. A true independent variable, by contrast, might require 90 subjects to investigate the exercise-memory link in the above example (30 each for the 10-, 20-, and 30-minute levels) compared to 30 total.

What is a dependent variable?
-> Dependent variable: A variable reflecting the presumed effect of the manipulation of an independent variable (e.g., score on an achievement test). It is the B in the If A, then B hypothesis.

What are some alternative synonyms for 'dependent variables?
-> Dependent variables are also called outcome variables or measures.

What is a dependent variable dependent on?
-> The values of this variable are presumably dependent on the particular condition of the independent variable (hence the name).

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What are some examples of dependent variables?
-> If a research study investigated the influence of cooperative learning groups on self-esteem, the dependent variable might be “[as measured by] the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. ” Or if a study investigated the influence of sugar on hyperactivity, the dependent variable might be “[as measured by] the duration of fidgeting. ”

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What are some examples of dependent variables?
-> Do you remember the old adage “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”? If this were tested empirically, could you determine the independent and dependent variables? The independent variable would be whether or not an apple was eaten each day, and the dependent variable might be how many doctor visits were needed by the apple eaters and non–apple eaters. Or, more generally and less literally, the independent variable might be type of diet (good versus poor), and the dependent variable might be the frequency of colds and flu or some other index of health. And if subjects could be assigned randomly to the apple eating condition, the independent variable would be a true independent variable.

What about dissecting “A rolling stone gathers no moss”? The independent variable would be whether or not the stone rolled, and the dependent variable would be the amount of moss on the stone. Less literally, the quasi-independent variable might be whether or not students' families moved when the students were in elementary school, and the dependent variable might be number of reported “best friends. ”

How are dependent and independent variables different and what is the role of intervening variables?
-> While independent variables are manipulated and dependent variables are measured, intervening variables are internal states (e.g., personality, motivation) that merely help to explain the connection between the other two.

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What are attribute variables?
-> The answer to many research questions investigating the effects of a particular teaching method is “It depends. ” What it depends on are attribute variables.

-> Attribute variable: A measured characteristic of research participants (e.g., learning style) presumed to be related to a dependent variable and part of the research hypothesis (If A, then B qualified by C, where C refers to the attribute variable).

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What are extraneous variables?
-> Extraneous variable: Any variable external to a research situation that is impacting the research and requires control so that its influence is neutralized.

How might extraneous variables be controlled?
-> Fortunately, many extraneous variables can be controlled by a single action— random assignment of students to conditions.

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What is a confound?
-> Failure to recognize and control extraneous variables may result in a form of contamination known as a confounding.

When does a confounding occur?
-> Specifically, a confounding occurs whenever a researcher has allowed two or more variables to change together.

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When can the term "confounding" be applied to variables?
-> Notice that the appropriate use of the term confounding refers to the confounding of independent and extraneous variables; it is not the dependent variable that is confounded.

What are some strategies to prevent a confounding?
-> In educational research, they are best prevented with a host of control strategies. These research designs, statistical techniques, and control strategies are described in Chapter 7. Extraneous variables that are successfully controlled through these maneuvers are sometimes referred to, quite appropriately, as controlled variables

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What is a research hypothesis?
-> Research hypothesis: A predicted outcome based on theory or understanding, often stated as If A, then B. It may also be stated as a foreshadowed question in qualitative research

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What must a research hypothesis accomplish?
-> It must specify in some form which variables are being studied, and if known, what potential outcome is expected.

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What is an artifact? how does it influence or bias the analysis of data?
-> Artifact: A product of unwanted influence found in research results, permitting a plausible rival explanation for the findings.

-> Artifacts are products of unintended influence or bias in the collection or analysis of data; as such, artifacts elicit alternative hypotheses.

What does it mean when we say that findings were an artifact of the data collection process?
-> To say that specific research findings were an artifact of the data collection procedure is to say that the findings were distorted and not to be trusted.

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What does it mean when we have alternate hypotheses occur from findings?
->It should be clear by now that plausible alternative hypotheses are undesirable in the research process.

What is a null hypothesis?
-> Null hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis asserting there is no relationship in the population among variables being studied.

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What role does the null hypothesis play in quantitative research?
-> Researchers strive to reject the null hypothesis (i.e., discard it as not plausible) in an attempt to show there is a connection.

Why would researchers assume that the two variables don't have a relationship during data analysis?
-> This is a temporary assumption and is believed to be true, so to speak, only while the computer is running during analysis of the data. The researcher really believes its opposite—the research hypothesis, which posits that there is a connection between the variables studied. The computer will then tell the researcher the likelihood (in the form of a p value) that posited findings could be obtained if the null hypothesis were true. If that likelihood is very small (e.g., only 1 in 100 chances), the researcher is entitled to reject the null hypothesis.

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Why would researchers assume that the two variables don't have a relationship during data analysis?
-> Most researchers want to discard (reject) the null hypothesis, because its rejection is interpreted as support for the research hypothesis.

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How do constructs and variables manifest in Action Research?
-> The logic used in action research is “reflective” and practical, meaning that ways of thinking are geared toward identifying and solving problems related to the researcher's own educational practice. Administrators, counselors, and teachers reflect about their practice in an attempt to identify problems and offer possible solutions. The problem is local, personal, and practical (not theoretical). Constructs and variables may be described in terms of ideas, changes, and problem statements.